Semiotics and Media Language

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Semiotics - the study of signs. In media it is the interpretation of these signs which creates meaning.

Stuart Hall's Encoding/Decoding model (Reception Theory) 

Saussure "Course in General Linguistics"

Saussure noted that his choice of the terms signifier and signified helped to indicate 'the distinction which separates each from the other'

“The notion of value(...) shows us that it is a great mistake to consider a sign as nothing more than the combination of a certain sound and a certain concept. To think of a sign as nothing more would be to isolate it from the system to which it belongs. It would be to suppose that a start could be made with individual signs, and a system constructed by putting them together. On the contrary, the system as a united whole is the starting point, from which it becomes possible, by a process of analysis, to identify its constituent elements.” (Saussure 1983, 112; Saussure 1974, 113)
 
As an example of the distinction between signification and value, Saussure notes that “The French word mouton may have the same meaning as the English word sheep; but it does not have the same value”.

Charles Sanders Peirce
In contrast to Saussure's model of the sign in the form of a 'self-contained dyad', Peirce offered a triadic model:

1. The Representamen -  the form which the sign takes (not necessarily material);The Representamen: the form which the sign takes (not necessarily material); 

2. An Interpretant - not an interpreter but rather the sense made of the sign;

3. An Object - to which the sign refers.

'A sign... [in the form of a representamen] is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity. It addresses somebody, that is, creates in the mind of that person an equivalent sign, or perhaps a more developed sign. That sign which it creates I call the interpretant of the first sign. The sign stands for something, its object. It stands for that object, not in all respects, but in reference to a sort of idea, which I have sometimes called the ground of the representamen' (Peirce 1931-58, 2.228). The interaction between the representamen, the object and the interpretant is referred to by Peirce as 'semiosis'.

- Within Peirce's model of the sign, the traffic light sign for 'stop' would consist of: a red light facing traffic at an intersection (the representamen); vehicles halting (the object) and the idea that a red light indicates that vehicles must stop (the interpretant). (Daniel Chandler)

The modes of signs - described by Daniel Chandler

1. Symbol/symbolic - a mode in which the signifier does not resemble the signified but which is fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional - so that the relationship must be learnt: e.g. language in general (plus specific languages, alphabetical letters, punctuation marks, words, phrases and sentences), numbers, morse code, traffic lights, national flags; 

2. Icon/iconic - a mode in which the signifier is perceived as resembling or imitating the signified (recognizably looking, sounding, feeling, tasting or smelling like it) - being similar in possessing some of its qualities: e.g. a portrait, a cartoon, a scale-model, onomatopoeia, metaphors, 'realistic' sounds in 'programme music', sound effects in radio drama, a dubbed film soundtrack, imitative gestures;

3. Index/indexical - a mode in which the signifier is not arbitrary but is directly connected in some way (physically or causally) to the signified - this link can be observed or inferred: e.g. 'natural signs' (smoke, thunder, footprints, echoes, non-synthetic odours and flavours), medical symptoms (pain, a rash, pulse-rate), measuring instruments (weathercock, thermometer, clock, spirit-level), 'signals' (a knock on a door, a phone ringing), pointers (a pointing 'index' finger, a directional signpost), recordings (a photograph, a film, video or television shot, an audio-recorded voice), personal 'trademarks' (handwriting, catchphrase) and indexical words ('that', 'this', 'here', 'there').

Sign - words, images, sounds, objects, phrases, postures, fecial expressions, rituls etc. 

Signs can be seen in different ways by different people. It means that signs are polysemic - thy have more than one meaning. 
That can be because of different:

• culture
• history
• background

Signs also change over the time. For example "gay". 

Gay  
The word’s original meaning meant something to the effect of “joyful”, “carefree”, “full of mirth”, or “bright and showy”.
It can be traced back to medieval French "gai", but its earlier origins are unknown.

In the eighteenth century lewd behaviour was part of the “gay life”, enjoyed by both men and women. Rakes and men-about-town were called “gay blades”. A Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue published in 1811 gives “the gaying instrument” as a slang term for the penis.

In the nineteenth century, good-time girls and street walkers were called “gay ladies” and brothels were called “gay houses”. Male hustlers plied the same streets as female prostitutes, and the word gay acquired a homosexual connotation.

• Cleveland Street - scandal of 1889 described himself in court as “gay”.
• London, Rev. John Church, a minister who performed marriages between men at a homosexual brothel in Vere Street in 1810, was described in a pamphlet of 1813 as “the gay parson”.

"Gay" was used in the 1930s in Midwest America as slang for “homosexual”.
In a Dictionary of Underworld Slang published in 1933, a gay cat was defined as “a homosexual boy”. It was prison slang for the younger man who serviced older partners.

By the 1940s the homosexual meaning of gay was common knowledge to those in the gay subculture and in the bohemian demi-monde in America. It became common in Britain in the 1950s. From the late 1950s it was increasingly extended to cover women as well as men.
The Gay Liberation Front in July 1969 - the adoption of the slogans “Gay Power”, “Gay is Good” and “Gay Pride”. GAY was perfect as a short, powerful, arresting image, on posters, on lapel badges, on manifestos.

Gay now - sexually attracted to people of the same sex and not to people of the opposite sex. (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/gay) 
Nowadays it is also used a lot as an insult. 

The word "gay" is now the most frequently used term of abuse in schools - http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7289390.stm

Donald Christie, professor in the Department of Childhood and Primary Studies, says "sexual orientation" is a source of potential vulnerability. "If there's an area of life that children themselves feel insecure about they're aware of their own vulnerability. The whole point of bullying is about identifying and accentuating weakness in others."  

The interpretation of signs is agreed upon by a society or a culture. 
For example "cat". We know what it means, though it does not look like an animal, we know that it is representing the small, furry animal that can be kept at home. 


It proves that the symbols are often ideological. 


Denotation - the literar meaning of a sign.

  meaning - eye sight 





Connotation - the associated meaning with a sign.

meaning - sexy, intelligent, smart

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 British Trailer for "Pride and Prejudice and Zombies" (2016)

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American Trailer for "Pride and Prejudice and Zombies" (2016)

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The US version of  "Inside out"

Using brocolly as something that children don't like to eat. - cultural association.

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The Japenese version of  "Inside out" 

When looking at the screenshots, we can see that there are green peppers used,, however in the trailer, there is still brocolly used. It may be because the trailer went out very soon after it was produced.

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There were also other changes that have been made to appeal to other, regional target audiences. 

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Other example can be the change of terms, words or even titles. The most famous one cna be the first book of Harry Potter series written by J.K. Rowling. The british title is "Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone", however in America it was changed to "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone". That happend because in America word "philosopher" means something differnt. It referes more to education than magic. "Sorcere's Stone" sounds more exciting for the American audience.

 

 
 



Jean Baudrillard’s Theory on hyperreality

Hyperreality - 'a condition in which "reality" has been replaced by simulacra’.

1. Simulacra - When a sign loses its relation to reality, it then begins to simulate a simulation.
2. Simulation - The process in which a representation of something comes to replace the thing which is actually being represented.
The representation then becomes more important than ‘the real thing'.

3. Hyperreality - Division between "real" and simulation has collapsed, therefore an illusion of an object is no longer possible because the real object is no longer there

We believe in a constructed reality and that is due the images and media that has been consumed by us as an audience. 
Most of things we "know" comes from media, photography, books. 

 
We know that this is a pyramid. We saw it in a book, film, news, however we have not seen in in reall life; yet we believe that this is a pyramid and the way it looks like.



Because we BELIEVE, media has the power to introduce us to the "reality" it wants us to believe in.
News, opinions, beauty, lifestyle and much more is dictated by the media.

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The theory of Audiences

1. The Effect Model 
The media messages are directly "incjected" into the audience. Then the audience will be influenced immediately by these messages. The audience are passive recivers and accept the messages without a question.

2. Marry Whitehouse 

• lobbied to ban films and TV programmes
• media images of sex and vilence are responsible for the decline of moral standards
• films are influential on society's values
• young people are particularly vulnerable to harmful images - they need protection
• certain people are capable of judging what others can see

3. Elizabeth Newson  

• published the Newson Report in 1994 which claimed that it had definitiely established the long sought-for link between screen violence and the real-life variety
• she tried to link the James Bulger murder to Child's Play 3
• report backed by other child psychologists and lead to changes in the law (CJPO Act 1994) 
• claimed prolonged exposure would lead to desensitasation (drip-drop effect - copycat behaviour)

4. Aminatta Forna

• advocates the theory of copycat behaviour and claims we do not have tthe ability to separate the screen with the reality
• argues that individuals will enjoy controversial material, particularly sexual violence, and this destroys social barriers preventing this behaviour
• claims that there is an inluence and power behind words and images, and that we all need protection from "the beast within us all".

5. Proffessor Craig Anderson & Dr. Douglas Gentile  

• found a small correlation between playing violent games and aggressive behaviour
• general aggression model argues that behaviours are reinforced over time
• Anderson refutes the claim that playing violent video games can have a cathartic effect, reducing out tendencies to act on violent impulses
• he was also a part of a study that showed adult heart rates normalised after prolonged playing of violent games (desesitisation) 

  There are also people who think differently 

1. Martin Barker

•  strongly argued agais Newson's report - there was o definitive link
• we should not always blindly blame the media because people are not copycats
• need to look beyond media and consider the social context it was consumed in
• audiences are able to differentiate between on screen and real life violence
• we need to ee violence as it is a part of life and helps us to understand the world we live in
• different people perceive different things to be "violence", not least as a result of their different experience of violence in real life

2. Mark Kermode 

• although we watch the same film, we all see something different
• takes issue the superiority of censors and why they are able o classify "for the masses"
• disagrees that film has the potential to harm; "there really is no such thing gas a provable tendency to deprave and corrupt"
• cuts are ineffective and children will stll get hold of "difficult material"
• argues that there should be no censorship for adults and that it is a perent's responsability to censor for their own children 

3. David Gauntlett

• the effect model tackles social problems backwards
• the effect model assumes superiority to the masses and treats them as lower class
• the effect model treats children as indadequate
• the effect model makes no attempt to understand meanings of the media - it does not sonciser oppositional or negotiated reading

 4. McQuail and Blumler

• diversion - escape from everyday problems and routine, entertaiment
• personal relationships - using the media for emotionsl and other interaction, eg substituting soap operas for family life, "water cooler" moment
• personal identity - finding yourself reflected in texts, learning behaviour and values from texts
• surveillance - information which could be usefull for living eg weather reports, financial news and holiday bargains
• the audience is active, meaning that they actively seek out specyfic media and content to achive certain results or gratifications that satisfy their personal needs. The mass also competes with other sources of grafication 

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The importance of decoding, connotations and context can be best seen withing the BBFC Classification system.

BBFC's research proved that the bad language becomes more accaptable with each generation. They decided to change their guidelines. They meant to take greater emphasis on the theme and tone particulary around 12A, 12 and 15.
They wanted to direct the attention to the psychological impact of horror, as well as strong visual detail such s gore.  - everything depends on the context

Woman in Black (James Watkins, 2011) 

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The film was submitted in 2012 with a 12A request. Context played an important part in the desision; in favour was the fact that the play is well known by school children and features a period setting. However, it featured Daniel Redcliffe, which could attract a younger audiece, and features a ghost maipulating children into killing themselves.

The BBFC felt there were several scene which were unsuitable for a 12A. A 15 uncut version was avaible to the distributor but they chose to cut the film. In totll they removed 6 seconds of stronger horror from the film. They also darkened certain shots and reduced some sound effects, to lessen the impact of some of the scerier "jump" moments.

The film was he most complained about film in 2012 with 134 complaints. Due to this it was involved in the 2014 public consultation. Filmgoers were increasigly concerned over th "tone" and "theme" of horror movies, as well as the amount of gore shown on screen and this caused an ajustment in the new guidelines. However, 89% of those consulted agreed with the 12A certificate.  

Signs are polysemic. The understanding and opinions on different aspect on cultural level change over time as well. As an example in terms of BBFC Classifications can be:

Island of Lost Souls (Erle C. Kenton 1932)

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In the film an obsessed scientist is secretly conducting experiments on animals on a remote island. It was rejected for classification in 1933 and 1957, apparently because its narrative wad deemed too horrifying. In 1958 it was granted an X certificate after cuts were made, but in 2011 it was classified as a PG on DVD, with those cuts restored.

Last House on the Left (Wes Craven, 1972)

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The film tells the story of two teenage girls who are abduced, tortured and murdered. When the perents who they are harbouring, they exacttheir brutal and bloody revenge. 

In 1974 the distributor sumitted the film already cut to remove most of the gore. The BBFC refused it a classification. In 1984 VHS copies of the film were seized by the police and the film was placed on the DPP's "Video Nasty" list. It was submitted again in 2000 by a different distributor, who refused to make cuts. Therefore it was refused a classification again. This was the same for DVD version also submitted, athough the film was available on DVD in America uncut. In 2008 the film was passed uncut as the BBFC no longer felt a court would find the film obscene and it had been overtaken by more recent "torture porn" horrors such as the "Saw" and "Hostel" films.

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Media Language - the codes, convntions, techniques used by a media for to communicate meaning. 

Codes
1. technical code - shots, movement, angles, lens, edit, sound, colors
2. visual codes - mise- en- scene, location, lightning, props, gesture, expression, cinematography, graphics, framing, compostition 
3. symbolic codes - stereotypes 



Conventions 
1. genre - type or category 
2. narrative - the plot of the story is told (plot - how it is told)